Abstract
Summary
This report reviews the current state-of-art of antiviral approaches including
vaccines, pharmaceuticals and innovative technologies for delivery of
therapeutics. The introduction starts with a practical classification of viral
diseases according to their commercial importance. Various antiviral
approaches are described including pharmaceuticals and molecular biological
therapies such as gene therapy and RNA interference (RNAi) as well as vaccines
for virus infections. Expert opinion is given about the current problems and
needs in antiviral therapy. SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats) analysis of antiviral approaches is presented against the background
of concept of an ideal antiviral agent.
A novel feature of this report is the use of nanotechnology in virology and
its potential for antiviral therapeutics. Interaction of nanoparticles with
viruses are described. NanoViricides are polymeric micelles, which act as
nanomedicines to destroy viruses. Various methods for local as well as
systemic delivery of antiviral agents and vaccines are described.
Nanobiotechnology plays an important role in improving delivery of antivirals.
Advantages and limitations of delivery of gene-based, antisense and RNAi
antiviral therapeutics are discussed.
Anti-influenza measures applicable to human as well as avian forms are
described including the recent epidemic of swine flu. Resistance can develop
against neuraminidase inhibitors although it is less than that with
adamantanes. Considering these problems, there is need for a more effective
agent. Investigations into alternative anti-influenza target will probably
expand in the coming years. These include the development of mechanisms to
inhibit fusion between the virus envelope and the cell membrane.
After a discussion of current therapies of AIDS/HIV and their limitations, new
strategies in development of antiviral agents are described. Drug resistance
and toxicities are emerging as major treatment challenges. Based on a review
of technologies and drugs in development, it can be stated that there are good
prospects are of finding a cure for HIV/AIDS in the next decade.
Hepatitis viruses are described with focus on hepatitis C virus (HCV) and
hepatitis B virus (HBV). Despite the presence of numerous drug candidates in
the anti-HCV pipeline, and the commitment of major R&D resources by many
pharmaceutical companies, it might still take several years for any new
anti-HCV drugs to reach the market. Although many companies are focusing their
efforts on developing viral inhibitors, cellular targets in the host are
beginning to emerge as attractive possibilities because they might enable the
development of broad-spectrum antiviral drugs with less chance for developing
viral resistance.
Various commercially important viruses include herpes simplex (HSV) and human
papilloma virus (HPV). There a number of treatments but HSV is not destroyed
completely and remains dormant and activates from time to time to cause
various clinical manifestations. There is discussion about the role of HPV in
cervical cancer and vaccines available now seem to be adequate in preventing
HSV-induced cervical cancer. There is no effective vaccine for respiratory
syncytial virus (RSV) although monoclonal antibody (MAb) treatment is useful
for prophylaxis and reducing the clinical manifestations. There is a need for
an agent to eliminate this virus.
Various viruses that either occur in epidemics or in tropics and some
naturally emerging infectious diseases are described, e.g. viral hemorrhagic
fevers such as dengue and West Nile virus infection. These are a constant
threat and impossible to anticipate. Some of these lack antiviral agents or
vaccines for prevention. Although these include some of the most serious viral
disorders, the development of antiviral agents for these is not commercially
attractive. Current research and approaches to these virus infections are
discussed.
Markets for antivirals are considered according to viruses and diseases caused
by them and also according to management approaches: antiviral drugs,
vaccines, MAbs and innovative approaches that include immunological and use of
other technologies such as gene therapy, antisense, RNAi and
nanobiotechnology. Antiviral markets are estimated starting with 2010 with
projections up to the year 2020.
Profiles of 178 companies that are involved in developing various technologies
and products are profiled and with 161 collaborations. These include major
pharmaceutical companies (13), those developing antiviral therapeutics (107)
as well as viral vaccine companies (58). The report is supplemented with 49
tables, 11 figures and 450 references from the literature.
Table of Contents
0. Executive Summary
1. Introduction to Virology
- Introduction
- Virus databases
- A practical classification of viruses
- Pathomechanism of viral diseases relevant to therapy
- Intrinsic host defense against retroviruses
- Life cycle of virus as basis for antiviral approaches
- Genetic switch in virus infections
- Emerging viruses
- Viral-induced cancer
- Prophylaxis versus therapy
- Economic impact of viral diseases
- Historical landmarks in the development of antiviral therapies
2. Antiviral Approaches
- Classification
- Antiviral drug discovery and development
- Viral versus cellular targets for antiviral therapy
- Antivirals based on double-stranded RNA activated caspase oligomerizer
- Antimicrobial peptides
- Immunological approaches
- Basics of immune regulation in relation to viruses
- Effect of viruses on the immune system
- Latent viral infections and the immune system
- Immunomodulating agents
- Amplification of innate immunity
- Enhancers of immune system
- Promoting immune-mediated clearance of a chronic viral infections
- Immunoglobulins
- Bovine lactoferrin
- Quercetin
- Monoclonal antibodies
- Bavituximab
- Treatment of viral infection with radiolabeled MAbs
- Limitations of MAbs and measures to overcome these
- Interferon-based approaches
- Novel antiviral approaches
- Squalamine
- Synthetic modified hypericin compounds
- Targeting Toll-like receptors
- Potential and drawbacks of TLR-ligands in viral diseases
- Inhibition of viral transport from cytoplasm into the cell nucleus
- Nitric Oxide based antiviral therapeutics
- Gene therapy for viral infections
- Antisense approaches to viral infections
- Antisense oligonucleotides
- Limitations of antisense oligonucleotides as antivirals
- NEUGENE antisense
- RNAi
- RNAi screens of viral genomes
- RNAi for treatment of viral infections
- Promise and pitfalls of RNAi gene therapy
- Management of rapidly evolving pathogens
- Personalized medicine and viral diseases
- An integrated approach to viral diseases
- Current problems and needs in antiviral therapy
3. Vaccines for Virus Infections
- Introduction
- Types of vaccines
- Live attenuated virus vaccines
- DNA vaccines
- Nanotechnology-based vaccines
- Recombinant viral vaccines
- Synthetic peptides as vaccines
- Virosomes
- Vaccines based on reverse genetics
- Virus-like particles
- Routine vaccination in children against viral infections
- Personalized vaccines
- Limitations of vaccines
- Neurological complications of vaccination
- Expert opinion on antiviral vaccines
4. Role of Nanotechnology in Developing Antiviral Agents
- Introduction
- Study of interaction of nanoparticles with viruses
- Nanoparticle antiviral agents
- Silver nanoparticles
- Fullerenes
- Nanoviricides
- Role of micelles in nanopharmaceuticals
- Some physicochemical characteristics common to polymeric micelles
- Structure and function of nanoviricides
- Mechanism of action of NanoViricides
- Advantages of NanoViricides
5. Delivery of Antivirals
- Introduction
- Methods of delivery of antiviral agents
- Local application of antivirals
- Systemic delivery of of protein-polymer antiviral drugs
- Controlled delivery of antivirals
- Targeted delivery of antivirals
- Delivery of antivirals to the brain across the blood-brain barrier
- Antiviral vaccine delivery systems
- Minicell vaccine delivery
- Transnasal delivery of vaccines by Newcastle disease virus as vector
- Transdermal delivery of vaccines
- CELLECTRA® electroporation device
- Intramuscular electroporation for delivery of DNA vaccine
- HIV/AIDS vaccination by transdermal application
- Transdermal vaccines for influenza
- Use of nanotechnology for improving delivery of antivirals
- Macrophage-based nanoformulated antiretroviral therapy
- Improvement of antiviral vaccine delivery by nanotechnology
- Bacterial spores for delivery of vaccines
- Liposomal antiviral vaccine preparations
- Nanoparticles for DNA vaccines
- Chitosan-derived nanoparticles for vaccine delivery
- Use gold nanorods for delivery of RNA immune activator molecules
- Proteosomes™ as vaccine delivery vehicles
- Polymeric micellae for delivery of DNA vaccine
- "Smart" nanoparticles for delivery of vaccines
- Nanospheres for controlled release of viral antigens
- Nanocoating for local viricidal effect
- Delivery of gene-based antiviral drugs
- Limitations of delivery of gene, RNAi and antisense therapies
- Systemic delivery of NanoViricides
- Concluding remarks on delivery of antiviral agents
6. Competitive Assessment of Antiviral Approaches
- Introduction
- An ideal antiviral agent
- SWOT analysis
- Concluding remarks
7. Influenza Viruses
- Introduction
- Clincal features of influenza
- Colds due to rhinovirus
- Effects of influenza on the respiratory system
- Effect of avian influenza on the nervous system
- Epidemiology
- Supermap of avian influenza
- Influenza A
- Avian influenza affecting humans
- Human influenza versus avian influenza
- H1N1 influenza
- Immune system and influenza
- Immune Epitope Database and Analysis Resources
- Anti-influenza approaches
- Pharmaceuticals
- Neuraminidase inhibitors
- Mechanism of action
- Tamiflu
- Zanamivir
- CS-8958
- Peramivir
- Resistance to neuraminidase inhibitors
- Adverse effects of neuraminidase inhibitors
- Other drugs for influenza
- Adamantanes
- Probenecid
- Current recommendations for the use of antiviral agents for influenza
- Vaccines
- Seasonal influenza vaccines
- Live attenuated influenza vaccine vs. inactivated vaccine
- Vaccines for H1N1 influenza
- Current status of influenza vaccines
- Current recommendations for influenza vaccination
- Current status of vaccine preparedness against seasonal influenza
- Current status of vaccine preparedness against H5N1
- Limitations, needs and challenges of influenza vaccines
- Limitations of current influenza vaccines
- Needs of influenza vaccines
- Problems with demand and supply of influenza vaccines
- Problems with access to virus samples
- FluVac project for development of pandemic influenza vaccine
- Influenza vaccines for multiple strains of the disease
- Universal influenza vaccines
- Future prospects of influenza vaccines
- Application of new technologies for influenza vaccines
- Adjuvants
- Cell culture-derived influenza vaccines
- DNA vaccines for avian influenza
- Epitope-based vaccines for influenza
- Gene-based vaccines for influenza
- Live attenuated vaccines
- MAbs for passive immunization against avian influenza
- M2e-based human influenza A vaccine
- Pre-pandemic split antigen H5N1 vaccine
- Recombinant-protein based influenza vaccines
- Synthetic avian influenza vaccine
- Viral vectors for influenza vaccination
- Virus-like particles as influenza vaccines
- RNAi-based approaches
- Inhibition of influenza virus by siRNAs
- Limitations of RNAi approach to influenza
- Challenges and future prospects of siRNAs for influenza
- Antisense approaches
- NEUGENE® antisense for inhibition of multiple strains of influenza A
- Nanoviricides against influenza
- Other innovative approaches
- Abatacept
- Polymeric coatings to inactivate influenza virus
- Cytotoxic therapy
- Cyanovirin
- Fludase
- Multiferon®
- Pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate
- T-705
- Value of antivirals in preventing spread of influenza after exposure
- Resistance to influenza therapy and efforts to overcome it
- NIAID Centers of Excellence for research on pandemic influenza viruses
- Research on influenza viruses at Bayer
- Concluding remarks and future prospects
8. AIDS/HIV
- Introduction
- Epidemiology
- Current concepts of pathomechanisms
- Decoding the structure of an entire HIV genome
- Genentic basis of resistance against HIV
- Host-pathogen interactions that regulate HIV-1 replication
- Pathogenesis of AIDS
- Visualization of the interaction of HIV-1 proteins with target cells
- Viral latency in HIV
- Complications of AIDS
- AIDS and the nervous system
- Opportunistic infections in AIDS
- Coexistent HIV-1 and HSV-2
- Coexistent hepatitis virus infections with HIV
- HIV and HBV
- HIV and HCV
- AIDS wasting syndrome
- Current therapies
- Aim of anti-HIV drugs
- Efavirenz
- Tipranavir
- Enfuvirtide
- Darunavir
- Impact of antiretroviral treatment on transmission of HIV
- Postexposure prophylaxis against HIV
- Limitations of current therapies
- Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy
- Drug resistance in AIDS
- Effect of interruption of HIV treatment
- Reservoirs of HIV Infection
- Persistance of low-level viremia in HIV-1 patients on retroviral therapy
- Reconsideration of abandoned therapies for AIDS
- Therapies in development
- Drugs in development for HIV/AIDS
- Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
- Apricitabine
- Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
- Etravirine
- IDX899
- Novel protease inhibitors
- Overcoming HIV-1 resistance to PIs
- PPL-100
- Entry inhibitors targeting CCR5 receptor
- Maraviroc
- SP-01A
- MAbs targeting CCR5 receptor
- PRO 140
- Ibalizumab
- Integrase inhibitors
- Raltegravir (Isentress)
- Elvitegravir (GS 9137)
- S/GSK1349572
- S/GSK1265744
- Design of fusion inhibitor peptides against enfuvirtide-resistant HIV-1
- Maturation inhibitors
- Blocking of pre-integration complex translocation
- Immune enhancers
- Pyrimidinediones
- Novel combinations of drugs for prevention of AIDS
- Truvada
- Combination of raltegravir, enfuvirtide, and darunavir
- Other innovative antiviral approaches against HIV/AIDS
- Enhancing immune response by blockade of PD-1 receptor
- IL-2 as adjunct to antiretroviral therapy
- A filtration device for HIV-1 as an adjunct to the immune system
- In vitro evaluation of antiviral drug activity
- Methods for sustaining antiviral activity
- Selective targeting of ITK to block multiple steps of HIV replication
- Drugs from natural sources
- Anti-HIV activity of drugs that stimulate cholesterol efflux
- Antiviral hyperactivation-limiting therapeutics
- Blocking of HIV budding by DC-SIGN protein
- ATR kinase as a target for anti-HIV drug discovery
- Nanoviricides for HIV/AIDS
- Prophylactic measures to prevent HIV infection
- Microbicidal agents for local application in HIV/AIDS
- Currently investigated microbicidals against HIV and their limitations
- CCR5 receptor blockers
- PSC-Rantes and recombinant chemokine analogs
- HIV-1 entry inhibitor griffithsin as a topical microbicide
- Nanotechnology-based topical microbicides
- Next generation microbicides for HIV
- Intracellular immunization in HIV
- Engineered cellular proteins such as soluble CD4s
- Intracellular antibodies
- Selection of T-cell vaccine antigens
- Glycoprotein 120 as target for neutralizing HIV-1 antibodies
- Anti-rev single chain antibody fragment
- Gene therapy strategies in HIV/AIDS
- Inhibition of HIV-1 replication by lentiviral vectors
- VRX496 (Lexgenleucel-T)
- Insertion of protective genes into target cells
- Use of genes to chemosensitize HIV-1 infected cells
- Autocrine interferon-β production by somatic cell gene therapy
- HIV/AIDS vaccines
- Cell-based vaccines for HIV
- Delivery of HIV vaccine by an adenoviral vector
- DNA vaccines for HIV/AIDS
- Epitope-based DNA vaccines against HIV
- Gene transfer for HIV vaccination
- Limitations and needs of HIV vaccines
- Recombinant HIV proteins
- Vaccination after discontinuation of antiretroviral treatment
- Innovations in HIV/AIDS vaccine
- Attenuated rabies virus-based vaccine for HIV
- Combination of a prime vaccine and booster vaccine
- Dendritic cell-based vaccine for HIV
- DermaVir
- Early control of HIV by an effector memory T cell vaccine
- MVA nef vaccine
- Peptide-based vaccine for HIV
- Personalized vaccine for HIV
- Transdermal nanoparticles for immune enhancement in HIV
- Vaccine to prevent HIV entry at the mucosal level
- Cell therapy for HIV/AIDS
- hESCs converted to T-cells for treatment of HIV infection
- Transplantation of genetically modified hematopoietic cells
- Transplantation of genetically modified T cells
- Overlapping Peptide-pulsed Autologous Cells
- Antisense approaches to AIDS
- Antisense oligodeoxynucleotides
- Antisense efforts with PNA constructs
- RNA decoys
- Ribozymes
- RNAi applications in HIV/AIDS
- A multiple shRNA approach for silencing of HIV-1
- Aptamer-mediated delivery of anti-HIV siRNAs
- Bispecific siRNA constructs
- Role of the nef gene during HIV-1 infection and RNAi
- siRNA-directed inhibition of HIV-1 infection
- Synergistic effect of snRNA and siRNA
- Targeting CXCR4 with siRNAs
- Targeting CCR5 with siRNAs
- Concluding remarks on RNAi approach to HIV/AIDS
- Companies involved in developing gene therapy for HIV/AIDS
- Conclusions regarding gene therapy of HIV/AIDS
- Testing for new anti-HIV therapies
- Personalized approach to management of HIV
- Differences in response of the body to HIV
- Variations in action of drugs on HIV
- Drug-resistance in HIV
- Replication Capacity measurement
- Role of biomarkers in management of HIV/AIDS
- Prevention of adverse reactions to antiviral drugs
- Nanoviricides as a personalized approach to HIV
- Concluding remarks and future prospects
9. Hepatitis Viruses
- Introduction
- Hepatitis delta virus infection
- Hepatitis A virus infection
- Hepatitis E virus infection
- Epidemiology
- Structure of the HEV
- HEV vaccines
- Epidemiology of HBV
- Pathogenesis of HBV-induced liver disease
- Current approaches to management of HBV
- Entecavir
- Adefovir dipivoxil
- Telbivudine
- Pegylated interferon-alpha
- Limitations of current therapies and needs of HBV
- Personalized management of HBV
- Innovations in the management of HBV
- Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate
- Hepatitis B immune globulins
- Nabi-HB
- HepaGam B
- Hepatitis B vaccine composed in a novel nanoemulsion adjuvant
- Innovative pharmaceuticals for HBV
- Clevudine
- HepDirect prodrugs
- Monoclonal antibodies for HBV
- RNAi-based therapy of HBV
- Personalized treatment of hepatitis B
- Concluding remarks and future prospects of management of hepatitis B
- Epidemiology of HCV
- HCV characteristics
- Pathomechanism of HCV infection
- Mechanism of HCV entry
- HCV and the immune system
- Mechanism of HCV replication and response to interferon
- Current approaches to management of HCV
- Interferon therapy for HCV
- Limitations of current HCV therapies
- Novel approaches to HCV
- HCV protease inhibitors
- Boceprevir
- Narlaprevir (SCH 900518)
- Telaprevir (Incivek)
- Small molecule HCV protease inhibitors
- Innovations in interferon therapy for HCV
- AlbIFN-α2b
- Directed evolution of gene-shuffled IFN-α for treatment of HCV
- GEA007.1
- Omega DUROS
- PEG-IFN-λ
- Personalizing interferon therapy of HCV
- Innovative ribavirin-based treatments
- Targeted delivery of hemoglobin-ribavirin conjugate for HCV
- Taribavirin
- Nucleoside polymerase inhibitor
- Valopicitabine
- Host cell targets for hepatitis C therapy
- SP-10
- NS5a inhibitors
- Compounds targeting HCV receptor E2
- Cyclophilin inhibitors
- Alisporivir
- Methylene blue
- Naringenin
- Nitazoxanide
- Cyclosporine and analogues as anti-HCV agents
- Clemizole and HCV
- RNAi-based approaches to HCV
- Use of adenoviral vectors for RNAi
- siRNAs for HCV
- Limitations and drawbacks of siRNA therapy for HCV
- Role of miRNA in viral infections
- miR-122 antagonists
- Therapeutic vaccine for HCV
- Clinical trials of HCV therapeutics
- Limitations to the development of effective anti-HCV therapeutics
- Causes of treatment failure in chronic hepatitis C
- HCV drug resistance
- Personalized management of HCV infection
- Role of sequencing in personalized management of HCV
- Future needs in HCV therapy
- Summary and concluding remarks about HCV therapy
10. Miscellaneous Commercially Important Virus Infections
- Introduction
- Herpes viruses
- Herpes simplex virus
- Treatment of HSV-1
- Acyclovir
- Vaccine for HSV
- Antisense therapy for HSV-1
- Herpes simplex virus 2 and genital herpes
- Famciclovir
- Intravaginal microbicidal agents for HSV-2
- Vaccine for HSV-2
- Herpes simplex keratitis
- Herpes simplex encephalitis
- Limitations of current HSV therapies
- Herpes zoster virus
- Herpes zoster and chicken pox
- Epidemiology of herpes zoster
- Treatment of herpes zoster
- Herpes zoster vaccine
- Cytomegalovirus
- Valganciclovir hydrochloride
- T-cell therapy for CMV
- Vaccine for CMV
- Gene therapy of CMV
- Antisense approach to CMV
- siRNA treatment of CMV
- Epstein-Barr virus
- Human papilloma virus
- Epidemiology
- Vaccines for HPV
- Gardasil
- Cervarix
- Vaccine based on fusion proteins of HPV envelope
- DNA vaccine VGX-3100
- Limitations of HPV vaccines
- Antivirals for HPV
- Imiquimod
- Novel approaches against HPV
- Intrabody strategies for the treatment of HPV
- A novel peptide to inhibit HPV
- Heat shock protein-based antivirals
- Respiratory syncytial virus
- Epidemiology
- Current management of RSV
- Palivizumab
- Innovative anti-RSV products in development
- RSV604
- MDT-637
- RNAi approach to RSV
- Vaccines for RSV
- BCG as a vaccine against RSV
- Oral DNA vaccine for RSV
- Other respiratory viruses
- Parainfluenzavirus type 3
- Human metapneumovirus
- Gastrointestinal viruses
- Noroviruses
- Concluding remarks
11. Viruses with High Impact but Low Commercial Significance
- Introduction
- Chikungunya fever
- Coxsackie virus
- Japanese encephalitis
- Vaccines for JE
- Parvovirus
- Polyomavirus JC
- Rabies
- Rabies vaccines
- Recombinant viral vaccines for rabies
- DNA vaccine against rabies
- Rabies immune globulin
- Monoclonal antibodies for rabies
- NanoViricides approach for rabies
- The Milwaukee protocol for rabies
- Rotavirus
- Epidemiology
- Vaccines against rotavirus
- Viral hemorrhagic fevers
- Dengue
- Antivirals in development
- Dengue vaccines
- Genetic elimination of dengue vector mosquitoes
- Ebola virus
- Development of antiviral drugs for Ebola
- DNA vaccine for Ebola
- Lassa fever
- Marburg hemorrhagic fever
- Yellow fever
- Vaccines for yellow fever
- Sequencing of Aedes aegypti genome and control of yellow fever
- Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever
- West Nile virus
- Epidemiology
- Pathogenesis
- Treatment of West Nile neuroinvasive disease
- Vaccines against WNV
- Innovative treatments for WNV
- Western equine encephalitis
- Sporadic virus epidemics
- Coronavirus/severe acute respiratory syndrome
- Therapeutic approaches to SARS
- MAbs for SARS
- siRNA treatment of SARS
- Zoonotic viral infections
- Vaccines for zoonotic viral diseases
- Virus bioterrorism and biowarfare
- Small pox as a biological weapon
- Status of small pox vaccination
- Strategies against virus bioterrorism and biowarfare
- Increasing resistance by stimulating innate immune mechanisms
- Nanoviricides for combating viral bioterrorism
- Concluding remarks
12. Markets for Antivirals
- Introduction
- Markets according to disease
- Influenza market
- HIV/AIDS market
- Hepatitis B and C markets
- Markets according to products and approaches
- Market values of monoclonal antibodies for viral diseases
- Market values of vaccines for viral diseases
- Markets for vaccines against HPV
- Markets for other antiviral vaccines
- Markets according to geographical areas
- Emerging markets for antiviral therapeutics
- Geographical distribution of HIV/AIDS market
- Unmet needs in antivirals
- Policies regarding conquered viral diseases
- Future of polio vaccine
- Policies concerning HPV vaccine for prevention of cervical cancer
- HPV vaccine in developing countries
- Future prospects of innovative approaches
- US Government support of antiviral efforts
- US Government support for R & D in avian influenza vaccines
- US Government support for developing anti-bioterrorism agents
- The European Union support of antiviral research
- European Commission's research support for anti-HIV/AIDS programs
- European Commission's support anti-influenza programs
- Collaboration of biotechnology companies with big pharma
- Strategies for marketing
13. Companies
- Introduction
- Top companies
- Profiles of pharmaceutical companies
- Profiles of antiviral companies
- Profiles of viral vaccine companies
- Collaborations
14. References
Tables
- Table 1-1: A practical classification of viruses
- Table 1-2: Vaccines vs therapeutics for viral diseases
- Table 1-3: Historical landmarks in the development of antiviral therapies
- Table 2-1: Classification of antiviral strategies
- Table 2-2: Viral vs cellular targets for discovery of antivirals
- Table 2-3: Viruses amenable to antisense oligonucleotides
- Table 2-4: Inhibition of viral replication by RNAi
- Table 3-1: Types of vaccines for viral diseases
- Table 4-1: Role of nanobiotechnology in virology
- Table 5-1: Methods of delivery of antiviral agents
- Table 5-2: Role of nanotechnology for improving delivery of antivirals
- Table 5-3: Commercially available liposomal antiviral vaccines
- Table 6-1: SWOT of monoclonal antibodies
- Table 6-2: SWOT of agents that prevention viral entry into cells
- Table 6-3: SWOT of drugs interfering with intracellular replication
- Table 6-4: SWOT of protease inhibitors
- Table 6-5: SWOT of integrase inhibitors
- Table 6-6: SWOT of maturation inhibitors
- Table 6-7: SWOT of neuraminidase inhibitors
- Table 6-8: SWOT of targeting Toll-like receptors (TLRs)
- Table 6-9: SWOT of topical antivirals agents against viral infections
- Table 6-10: SWOT of gene therapy, antisense oligonucleotides, RNAi
- Table 6-11: SWOT of vaccines
- Table 6-12: SWOT of NanoViricides
- Table 7-1: Anti-influenza approaches
- Table 7-2: Antiviral drugs used for influenza
- Table 7-3: Various approaches to production of influenza vaccines
- Table 8-1: Drugs in clinical development for HIV/AIDS
- Table 8-2: Strategies for gene therapy of AIDS
- Table 8-3: Classification of HIV/AIDS vaccines in clinical trials
- Table 8-4: Companies involved in developing gene therapy for HIV/AIDS
- Table 9-1: Innovations in the treatment of HBV
- Table 9-2: Innovations for management of HCV
- Table 9-3: Antiviral agents for HCV targeting host cells
- Table 9-4: HCV drugs in clinical trials
- Table 10-1: Methods of delivery of acyclovir
- Table 11-1: Strategies against virus bioterrorism and biowarfare
- Table 12-1: Worldwide market for all antiviral approaches 2011-2021
- Table 12-2: Markets for antivirals according to virus infections 2011-2021
- Table 12-3: Markets values of all drugs for HIV/AIDS 2011-2021
- Table 12-4: Market values of monoclonal antibodies for viral diseases
2011-2021
- Table 12-5: Market values of vaccines for viral diseases 2011-2021
- Table 12-6: Markets for antiviral drugs according to geographical areas
2011-2021
- Table 12-7: Markets for antiviral vaccines according to geographical areas
2011-2021
- Table 12-8: Emerging markets for antiviral drugs according to countries
2011-2021
- Table 12-9: Emerging markets for antiviral vaccines according to countries
2011-2021
- Table 13-1: Top five antiviral companies
- Table 13-2: Roche antiviral products in development
- Table 13-3: Collaborations of antiviral companies
Figures
- Figure 1-1: Varieties of host and cell responses to viral infections
- Figure 1-2: Cycle of infection and replication of a retrovirus
- Figure 1-3: Viral-induced cancer
- Figure 2-1: An integrated approach to viral diseases
- Figure 4-1: Schematic representation of NanoViricide attacking a virus
particle
- Figure 7-1: Evolution of mutations associated with virulence/drug
resistance in H5N1
- Figure 7-2: Mechanism of development of resistance to oseltamivir
- Figure 8-1: Mode of action of some current anti-HIV drugs
- Figure 9-1: Steps of HBV replication and site of action of various drugs
- Figure 9-2: Omega DUROS device for interferon delivery in chronic
hepatitis C
- Figure 12-1: Unmet needs in antivirals
