氫經濟：2007年

Abstract

Introduction

• What is the Hydrogen Economy? Is it going to happen?
• The energy sector of the world is on the cusp of immense change
• The world’s demand for energy is voracious and increasing
• Our energy infrastructure is aging and large chunks are at the end of their design life
• People are becoming aware that the primary energy resource, fossil fuels, is not limitless
• We are constantly bombarded with catastrophic predictions of global warming
• So what is the answer?
• One solution being put forward is to convert from the Carbon Economy which fuelled the Industrial Revolution to a Hydrogen Economy
• But what is this and will it solve the problems?

Report Scope

• This report explains what a Hydrogen Economy would be
• It describes the many obstacles which would need to be overcome to bring it into existence
• The development of the Hydrogen Economy will advance on two parallel fronts
• The development of another technology, the Fuel Cell, is essential to the exploitation of Hydrogen; the two are interlinked
• Fuel cells utilise the chemical energy of hydrogen to produce electricity and thermal energy
• We are further along the road than many people realise, the report outlines the development of Fuel Cells as technologies and markets
• The technology and infrastructure to produce and deliver large quantities of hydrogen to consumption points must be created
• The many and varied technologies of Fuel Cells, alternatives to batteries and the combustion engine, must be developed and refined to exploit the properties of hydrogen
• Hydrogen will be produced from a diverse base of primary energy feedstocks, or from water using renewable electricity in the process
• Fuel Cells are already being commercialised and are used in a wide variety of products

Key Research Findings

• Hydrogen and Fuel Cells have competitors
• New technologies include large scale electrification in conjunction with plug-in hybrid vehicles and Li-ion batteries in transport
• In the stationary applications market, distributed electricity generation or cogeneration present an alternative to hydrogen
• Other significant competitors are a new level of power generation technologies, such as large, increased efficiency coal and gas-fired power plants, possibly using underground coal gasification (UCG) with CO2 capture and storage (CCS), renewable electricity supply technologies which are already widespread in the market (wind and solar PV) or now being commercialised (ocean and tidal energy), and new nuclear power technologies
• ABS believes that in 50 years the world may use a hybrid, a composite of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells, beside other energy carriers, distributed generation, gas and electricity, renewable energy and emission-free generation from hydrocarbons using underground coal gasification, carbon capture and storage
• The possibilities are endless

Table of Contents

1. Executive Summary

• The Hydrogen Economy
• Hydrogen Production, Storage and Delivery- the Infrastructure
• Fuel Cells
• Fuel Cell Costs
• Current Market Penetration and Companies Manufacturing Fuel Cells

2. The Hydrogen Economy - What is it?

• The Carbon Economy
• The Hydrogen Economy
  • Hydrogen, an Energy Carrier Not Primary Energy
  • Conversion
  • Combustion
• Fuel Cells
• Applications of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
• Stationary Applications
  • Industrial Applications
  • Residential Applications
  • Backup or Premium Power Requirements
  • Power Generation
  • Hydrogen Generation Power Parks
• Portable Applications and the ‘Power Gap’
• Transport Applications
  • Fuels for Fuel Cell Vehicles
• The Drivers Affecting the Development of Hydrogen Energy

3. The Arguments For and Against the Hydrogen Economy and Competitive Technologies

• Benefits of Hydrogen
  • Efficiency
  • Decentralised Power
  • Security of Supply
  • Emissions
  • Reliable and Silent Operation
  • Energy Savings
  • Multiple Uses and Hybrids
• Barriers and Disadvantages of Hydrogen
  • Production and Delivery of Hydrogen
• Costs of Delivery
  • Production
  • Packaging of Hydrogen
  • Delivery of Hydrogen
  • Transfer of Hydrogen
• Competitive Technologies

4. Time Frame for the Hydrogen Economy

• Current Stage of Development
• Transition to the Hydrogen Economy
• Implementing the Transition to Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
• US Hydrogen Roadmap
  • Phase One - Progress in Technologies, Policies and Markets
  • Phase Two - Transitioning to the Marketplace
  • Phase Three - Expansion of Markets and Infrastructure
  • Phase Four - Realisation of the Hydrogen Vision
• European Hydrogen Roadmap
• Japanese Hydrogen Roadmap

5. Manufacturing Technology and the Production Process of Hydrogen

• Introduction
• Methods of Hydrogen Production
• Hydrogen Reformation from Fossil Fuels
  • Gas Steam Reformation
• Underground Coal Gasification (UCG)
• Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)
• Other Fossil Fuels, Fuel Oil
• Carbon Emission-free Hydrogen Production
• Hydrogen Production from Water
• Electrolysis
• Reduction of Emissions in Upstream Production of Hydrocarbon Feedstock for Hydrogen Generation
• CCS - Carbon Capture and Sequestration
  • Post-combustion Capture
  • Pre-combustion Capture
  • Oxyfuel Combustion
  • Options for CO2 Storage
• Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
• Production Technologies, Renewables
  • Wind
  • Solar
  • Hydro
  • High-temperature Solar Thermochemical Processes
  • Biomass, Thermochemical Gasification
  • Cross-cutting
  • Photo Electrochemical
• Nuclear
• Biological and Photolytic
• Boron

6. The Hydrogen Infrastructure, Production, Storage and Delivery

• Production Pathway
  • Centralised Production Pathway
  • Distributed Production Pathway
• Storage of Hydrogen
  • Compressed Gas
  • Cryogenic Storage
  • Hydrides
  • Nanotube (Carbon Material) Storage, Chemically Stored Hydrogen
• Transport and Distribution
• Options for CO2 Transport
  • Transport of Liquid Hydrogen
  • Roadway Transportation
  • Hydrogen Pipelines
  • Ocean Transportation
  • Air Transportation

7. Hydrogen Production, Volume and Producers

• Global Production
• Merchant and Captive

8. Fuel Cells, Types, Current Status and Applications of Each Type

• What is a Fuel Cell?
• Fuel Cell Stack
• PEMFC Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (also called a PEFC)
• DMFC - Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
• AFC - Alkaline Fuel Cell
• PAFC - Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
• MCFC - Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
• SOFC - Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
• Regenerative Fuel Cells
• New Developments

9. Fuel Cell Cost and Deployment

• Stationary Applications
• Distributed Power Generation (DG)
• PAFC
• MCFC, SOFC, PEMFC
• Fuel Cell Vehicles
• Portable Applications

10. Manufacturers of Fuel Cells

11. R&D

• International
• United States
  • Government Partnerships with Industry
  • Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance (SECA)
  • SECA Fuel Cell Coal-Based Systems
  • Advanced Fuel Cell Research
  • Tubular Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology
  • Fuel Cell/Turbine Hybrids
  • Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Technology
  • Financial Support for Fuel Cells
• Canada
  • Partnership for Advancing the Transition to Hydrogen (PATH)
• Japan
  • National Hydrogen Programme (WE-NET)
  • New Hydrogen Project (NHP)
  • Japan Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Project
• EU
  • 5th Framework Programme (FP5), 1999-2002
  • 6th Framework Programme (FP 6) 2002 to 2006
  • 7th Framework Programme (FP 7) 2007to 2013
  • Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Programmes
• National Programmes
• Germany
  • Clean Energy Partnership (CEP)
• Iceland
  • INE-Icelandic New Energy
• Other National Programmes in the EU
• Austria
• Belgium
• Denmark
• Finland
• France
• Greece
• Italy
• Netherlands
• Norway
• Portugal
• Spain
• Sweden
• Switzerland
• Turkey
• United Kingdom
• Australia
• Multilateral Initiatives
• Partnership for Advancing the Transition to Hydrogen (PATH)
• International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy (IPHE)
• US-EU Cooperation

12. Fuel Cell Installations, Country Analysis

13. Fuel Cell Vehicles

• Development Status
• FCV Commercialisation
  • Time Line for Launching FCVs
• Major Government-Supported Fuel Cell Vehicle Projects
• Australia
  • Sustainable Transport Energy Programme (STEP)
  • National Hydrogen Study
• Canada
  • Canadian Transportation Fuel Cell Alliance (CTFCA)
  • Hydrogen Early Adopters (‘h2EA’) Programme
• China
  • Passenger Cars and Buses
  • Two-Wheel Vehicles
• Europe - EU
  • CUTE
  • ECTOS
  • FEBUSS
  • Fuel cell bus for Berlin, Copenhagen and Lisbon
  • CITYCELL
  • ENERGIE
• World Bank/GEF Fuel Cell Bus Development Programme
  • China/GEF
  • Egypt/GEF
  • Brazil/GEF
  • Mexico/GEF
  • India/GEF
• Iceland (ECTOS)
• Japan
  • Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Demonstration Project (JHFC)
• Singapore
• US
  • FreedomCAR/Hydrogen Fuel Initiative
  • California Fuel Cell Partnership
  • Bus Demonstrations
• Manufacturers of Light-duty Fuel Cell Vehicles
  • BMW
  • BMW Partnerships
  • Daihatsu
  • Daihatsu Partnerships
  • Daimler-Chrysler
  • Daimler-Chrysler Partnerships
  • Delphi
  • Delphi Partnerships
  • Fiat
  • Fiat Partnerships
  • Ford
  • Ford Partnerships
  • General Motors
  • GM Partnerships
  • GM Distributed Generation
  • GM-PATAC
  • Honda
  • Hyundai
  • Mazda
  • Mazda Partnerships
  • Michelin
  • Mitsubishi
  • Mitsubishi Partnerships
  • Nissan
  • Nissan Partnerships
  • PSA/Peugeot
  • PSA/Peugeot Partnerships
  • Renault
  • Renault Partnerships
  • Suzuki
  • Suzuki Partnerships
  • Toyota
  • Toyota Partnerships
  • Volvo
  • Partnerships
  • Volkswagen AG
  • Partnerships
• Manufacturers of Fuel Cell Transit Buses
  • Georgetown University Fuel Cell Bus Programme
  • DaimlerChrysler
  • Electric Fuel Corporation
  • Irisbus
  • Gillig
  • Hino Motors
  • MAN
  • NABI (North American Bus Industries)
  • Neoplan
  • New Flyer Industries
  • Nova Bus
  • Proton Motor Fuel Cell GmbH
  • Toyota
  • Thor Industries, Inc
  • UTC
  • Van Hool
  • Volvo Bus
• Speciality Vehicles
• Bicycles and Scooters
  • Asia Pacific Fuel Cell Technologies
  • Ceramatec Inc (USA)
  • DCH Technology (USA)
  • Palcan Fuel Cells Ltd
  • PEM Technologies Inc
  • Manhattan Scientifics
  • Yamaha Motor Company
  • PowerZinc Electric Inc.
  • Beijing Fuyuan Century Fuel Cell Power Ltd
• Golf Carts/Forklifts/Utility Vehicles
  • Astris Energi Inc
  • H Power
  • JLG Industries Inc
  • Deere & Company
  • Sustainable Development Technology Canada (SDTC)
  • Siemens/KWU
• Locomotives
  • Fuelcell Propulsion Institute
  • Railway Technical Research Institute
• ‘All Electric’ Systems for Military Applications
• Marine, Boats, Yachts, Submarines
  • FuelCellEnergy (USA)
  • MTU Friedrichshafen
  • HaveBlue
  • Helion (France)
  • Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft AG
  • Siemens AG
  • Siemens/KWU
• Airplanes, NASA and Boeing
  • NASA
  • Boeing

14. Fuel Cell Vehicles, Project Analysis and Status

15. Fuel Cell Bus, Project Analysis and Status

16. Fuel Cell Special Vehicles, Project Analysis and Status

17. Fuelling Stations, Worldwide Locations

18. Fuel Cells, Large Stationary Applications

• Molten Carbonate Fuel cells (MCFC)
• Fuel Cell/Gas Turbine hybrids
• Fuel Used
• Companies Involved in Large Stationary Fuel Cell Development
  • Ansaldo Fuel Cells (Genoa, Italy)
  • FuelCell Energy (USA)
  • GenCell (USA)
  • Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries (IHI) (Japan)
  • Marubeni
  • MTU CFC Solutions (Germany)
  • Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited (India)
  • Electric Power Development Co Ltd (Japan)
  • Fuji Electric (Japan)
  • Korea Gas (Korea)
  • Nippon Petroleum Gas (Japan) and Toshiba IFC (Toshiba International Fuel cells Corporation)
  • Tokyo Gas (Japan)
  • UTC Fuel cells (USA)
• Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
• Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
  • Ballard Power Systems (Canada)
  • BUDERUS AG
  • Chubu Electric Power (Japan)
  • Daido Metal Co Ltd (Japan)
  • EFC European Fuel Cell
  • Electrocell (Brazil)
  • General Motors (USA)
  • Helion (France)
  • Hydrogenics (Canada)
  • JPower (Japan)
  • McDermott Technology Inc (USA)
  • Mitsubishi Materials (Japan)
  • Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (Japan)
  • NedStack (Netherlands)
  • Nippon Steel (Japan)
  • Nippon Telegraph and Telephone’s (NTT) (Japan)
  • Nuvera Fuel cells (Italy/USA)
  • Rinnai Corporation (Nagoya City)
  • Rolls-Royce (UK)
  • Sanyo Electric Co Ltd (Japan)
  • Siemens Westinghouse Power Generation (USA)
  • Staxera (Germany)
  • Sulzer Hexis AG (Switzerland)
  • Voller Energy
  • Wärtsilä (Finland)
  • Ztek Corporation (California, USA)

19. Fuel Cells, Small Stationary Applications

• Technology and Size
  • Acumentrics Corporation (Massachusetts, USA)
  • Air Water Inc (Japan)
  • Alp²s (Austria)
  • Asia Pacific Fuel Cell Technologies (APFCT) (Taiwan)
  • Ballard Power Systems (Canada)
  • Beijing Fuyuan Fuel Cell Group (China)
  • CEA (French Atomic Energy Commission) (France)
  • Ceramic Fuel Cells Limited or CFCL (Australia)
  • CESI (Italy)
  • Cosmo Oil Co (Japan)
  • Cummins Power Generation (Minnesota, USA)
  • Delphi Corporation (Michigan, USA)
  • Ebara Ballard Corporation (Japan)
  • ENEA (Italy)
  • EnGen Group Inc (USA)
  • Franklin Fuel Cells Inc (USA)
  • Fuel Cell Energy, Inc. (FCE) (Cincinnati, USA)
  • Fuel Cell Technologies (Canada)
  • Fuji Electric Co Ltd (Japan)
  • Gastar (Japan)
  • General Electric Hybrid Power Systems (California, USA)
  • Hiroshima Gas Co.,Ltd., Hiroshima University, MHI,and others (Japan)
  • Hitachi Zosen Corp (Japan)
  • Hokkaido Gas Co., Ltd. and Hokkaido University (Japan)
  • Hydrogenics Corp (Canada)
  • Idemitsu Kosan Co Ltd (Japan)
  • Intelligent Energy Limited (UK)
  • IRD Fuel Cells A/S (Denmark)
  • Ishikawajima-Shibaura Machinery Co Ltd (Japan)
  • ITN Energy Systems, Inc. (Colorado, USA)
  • Iwatani International Corporation, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. (MHI) (Japan)
  • Japan Energy Corp (Japan)
  • Kansai Electric Power Co Inc (Japan)
  • Kyocera Corporation (Japan)
  • Matsumara Bussan Co Ltd (Japan)
  • Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd and Ebara Corp (Japan)
  • Mitsubishi Material Corporation
  • Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. (MHI) (Japan)
  • Misawa Homes Co., Ltd
  • Nihonkai Gas Co Ltd (Japan)
  • Nippon Oil Corporation (Japan)
  • NEF (Japan)
  • Osaka Gas Co Ltd (Japan)
  • Plug Power (USA)
  • Saibu Gas Co Ltd (Japan)
  • Shizuoka Gas Co Ltd and Others (Japan)
  • Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation (Pennsylvania, USA)
  • TIFC (Japan)
  • Toho Gas Co Ltd (Japan)
  • Tokyo Gas Co Ltd (Japan)
  • Vaillant (Germany)
  • Viessmann (Germany)

20. Fuel Cells, Portable Applications

• Product Applications
  • Market Positioning and Potential
• Battery Replacement Ratios
• Demand Forecast
  • Mobile Phones
  • Notebook Computers
  • Camcorders, Digital Cameras and PDAs
• Direct Methanol Fuel Cell DMFC Companies
  • Antig Corp (Taiwan)
  • Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. (BATC) (USA)
  • Bantec Co (Japan)
  • CASIO Computer Co Ltd (Japan)
  • Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry (China)
  • Cosel Co, Saito Mfg Co (Japan)
  • Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Corporation (USA)
  • Electric Fuel (USA)
  • Fujian Nanping Nanfu Battery Co (China)
  • Giner Electrochemical Systems (USA)
  • H Power (USA)
  • Hitachi Ltd (Japan)
  • Hydrogenics Corporation (USA)
  • Kanagawa Industrial Technology Research Institute (Japan)
  • KDDI Corporation (Japan)
  • Lynntech Industries Ltd (USA)
  • Masterflex (USA)
  • Material & Energy Research Institute Tokyo Ltd (Japan)
  • Matsushita Electric Industrial Co Ltd (Japan)
  • Mechanical Technology/MTI Micro fuel Cells (USA)
  • Medis (USA)
  • Millennium Cell (USA)
  • Motorola (USA)
  • MTI MicroFuel Cells Inc (USA)
  • MTU CFC Solutions (USA)
  • NEC Corp (Japan)
  • NTT Corporation and KDDI Corporation (Japan)
  • NTT DoCoMo Inc (Japan)
  • PolyFuel Inc (USA)
  • Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology (Korea)
  • Sanyo Electric Co and Japan IBM Co (Japan)
  • Samsung Electro Mechanics (Korea)
  • Seiko Instruments Inc (Japan)
  • Smart Fuel Cells (Germany)
  • Symyx Technologies Inc (USA)
  • Toshiba Corporation (Japan)
  • Trimol Group Inc (USA)
  • UltraCell (USA)
  • Unversity of California (USA)
  • Vantec Corp (Japan)
  • Yuasa Corp (Japan)

21. Sources

Figures

• Figure 2-1: Fuel Shares, Total Final Primary Energy Supply TPES
• Figure 2-2: The Predominance of Carbon, World Power Generation by Fuel
• Figure 2-3: The Path Forward for Hydrogen
• Figure 4-1: Mosaic Approach to the Hydrogen Economy
• Figure 4-2: DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Roadmap for the United States
• Figure 4-3: Skeleton European Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Roadmap
• Figure 4-4: Japanese Hydrogen Roadmap
• Figure 4-5: METI Scenario for the Introduction of FCs and FCVs in Japan
• Figure 5-1: Hydrogen Production Alternatives
• Figure 5-2: Hydrogen Production and Carbon Capture from Natural Gas
• Figure 5-3: Geological Storage Options for Captured Carbon
• Figure 5-4: Ocean Storage Concepts for Captured Carbon
• Figure 5-5: Carbon Dioxide-Enhanced Oil Recovery with Water/Alternating Gas (WAG) Injection Sweeps Additional Oil to the Recovery Well.
• Figure 6-1: Fuelling Options for Central Hydrogen Production
• Figure 8-1: Fuel Cell Concept
• Figure 8-2: Fuel Cell Stack
• Figure 8-3: PEMFC Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
• Figure 8-4: Alkaline Fuel Cell
• Figure 8-5: Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
• Figure 8-6: Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
• Figure 11-1: Hydrogen and Fuel Cells - National R&D Efforts and International Co-operation
• Figure 13-1: All Electric Systems
• Figure 13-2: 214 Class Submarine with Fuel Cell Installation
• Figure 18-1: Installations of Large Stationary Fuel Cells
• Figure 18-2: Average Large Stationary Fuel Cell Unit Capacity kW
• Figure 19-1: Growth in Small Stationary Fuel Cell Installations Worldwide
• Figure 20-1: Worldwide Premium Battery Market, Available Market for Small DMFCs, Mns of Units

Tables

• Table 2-1: The Composition of the Hydrogen Industry
• Table 2-2: Supporting and Inhibiting Factors for Hydrogen Energy Development
• Table 3-1: Possible Hybrid of Energy Technologies, Combining Carbon and Hydrogen
• Table 7-1: Production of Hydrogen by Source
• Table 7-2: Half of the Hydrogen is Produced in the US, China and the EU.
• Table 9-1: Cost of Energy Obtained by Primary Batteries
• Table 9-2: Energy and Cost Comparison Using Rechargeable Cells
• Table 9-3: Cost Comparison to Generate 1 kW of Energy, Taking Into Account the Initial Investment, Fuel Consumption, Maintenance and Eventual Replacement of the Equipment
• Table 10-1: Manufacturers of Fuel Cells
• Table 11-1: EU Support (in million €) to Hydrogen and FUEL Cell TRD in FP5 for the Period 1999-200279
• Table 11-2: Hydrogen Contracts Awarded, or Under Negotiation, After the First calls for Proposals in the Sixth Framework programme (FP6)
• Table 11-3: Fuel Cell Contracts Awarded, or Under Negotiation, After the First Calls for Proposals in the Sixth Framework Programme (FP6)
• Table 12-1: Countries by Number of Installation, Fuel Used for Manufacture of Hydrogen, Fuell Cell Type, Year of Installation
• Table 13-1: Timetable of FCV Commercialisation
• Table 14-1: Auto Manufacturer, by Vehicle Type, Year of Demonstration, Year of Commercial Introduction, Engine Type, Fuel Cell type and size, Fuel Cell Manufacturer, Fuel Cell Parameters, Range, Maximum Speed.
• Table 15-1: Model Type. By Bus Manufacturer, Location of Operation, Year of Demonstration, Engine Type, Fuel Cell Type and Size, Fuel Cell Manufacturer, Fuel Type, Fuel Cell Parameters, Range, Maximum Speed.
• Table 16-1: Vehicle Type, by Manufacturer, Year of Demonstration and Commercial Introduction, Fuel Cell Type and Size, Fuel Cell Manufacturer, Fuel Cell Parameters, Range, Maximum Speed.
• Table 17-1: Present and Planned Hydrogen Fuelling Stations
• Table 17-2: Source of Hydrogen Supply